Native mycorrhizal fungi improve milkweed growth, latex, and establishment while some commercial fungi may inhibit them

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are root symbionts that can facilitate plant growth and influence communities by altering interactions with herbivores. Therefore, AM could be critical for the conservation of certain rare plants For example, North American milkweed species crucial hosts monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Understanding how composition affects milkweeds will have direct impacts on restoration both increasingly threatened guilds. We present data from three studies effect fungal growth, latex production, establishment. First, we grew seven without a mixture native fungi. assessed important is to production growing four compositions, as single-species inoculations fungi, single commercial fungus presumably non-native origin, noninoculated controls. Finally, field establishment two inoculation. Milkweed 98% larger produced 82% more after inoculation mycorrhizae. Milkweeds were strongly affected composition; inhibited (average ?14% growth) showed variable but positive responses +3% +38% biomass). found was dependent species. Overall, our findings indicate some (i.e., Asclepias syriaca A. incarnata) not responsive presence or sensitive while others are, including endangered (A. meadii) high value tuberosa). conclude reintroduction improve desirable should considered within strategies plantings conservation.